Myanmar (formerly Burma)

Historical overview

Myanmar’s modern history has been shaped by successive kingdoms, British colonial conquest, Japanese occupation, the independence movement, ethnic conflict and prolonged military rule. The Konbaung dynasty was the last major Burmese kingdom. Following three Anglo-Burmese wars between 1824 and 1885, Britain annexed the country and administered it as part of British India until Burma became a separate British colony in 1937.

During the Second World War, Japanese forces occupied Burma. Aung San and other nationalist leaders initially cooperated with Japan in the struggle against British rule, but the Burma National Army later turned against the Japanese in March 1945. Negotiations with Britain led to the Aung San–Attlee Agreement of 27 January 1947. The Panglong Agreement, signed on 12 February 1947 by Aung San and representatives of several frontier areas, became a significant document in the debate over ethnic cooperation and the future Union.

Aung San was assassinated on 19 July 1947. Burma adopted its first post-independence Constitution in September 1947 and became independent on 4 January 1948. The parliamentary period from 1948 to 1962 faced communist and ethnic armed insurgencies, political divisions and disputes over federalism.

On 2 March 1962, General Ne Win seized power in a military coup and established the Revolutionary Council. The military government pursued the “Burmese Way to Socialism,” nationalising much of the economy and restricting political activity. A new constitution in 1974 institutionalised one-party rule.

Mass demonstrations in 1988 challenged military rule. The military violently suppressed the movement, and a new junta took power in September 1988. In the 1990 general election, the National League for Democracy won a decisive victory, but the military did not transfer state power to the elected parliament. A new Constitution was approved in a military-organised referendum in 2008. Elections in 2010 and 2015 led to a limited political opening, with the NLD taking office in 2016.

The military seized power again on 1 February 2021, detaining civilian leaders and overturning the elected government. The UN Human Rights Council condemned the removal of the elected government and called for restoration of democratic institutions. UN reporting has documented extensive human-rights violations following the coup. Human Rights LibraryThe Rohingya crisis is another essential part of Myanmar’s contemporary historical record. The 2017 military operations in Rakhine State forced large numbers of Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh. The UN Independent International Fact-Finding Mission investigated alleged violations by military and security forces, and much of its evidence was transferred to the Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar. Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar

Key historical timeline

1. 1824–26First Anglo-Burmese War; British annexation of Arakan and Tenasserim.
2. 1852Second Anglo-Burmese War; British annexation of Lower Burma.
3. 1885–86Third Anglo-Burmese War; British annexation of Upper Burma.
4. 1937Burma separated administratively from British India.
5. 1942Japanese occupation of Burma begins.
6. 1945Burmese National Army turns against Japanese forces.
7. 27 January 1947Aung San–Attlee Agreement signed.
8. 12 February 1947Panglong Agreement signed.
9. 19 July 1947Aung San and other cabinet members assassinated.
10. 4 January 1948Burma becomes independent.
11. 2 March 1962Military coup led by General Ne Win.
12. 1974New Constitution establishes the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma.
13. 8 August 1988Nationwide pro-democracy demonstrations; military repression follows.
14. September 1988State Law and Order Restoration Council takes power.
15. 27 May 1990General election; NLD wins a decisive victory, but the military does not transfer power.
16. 1997Myanmar joins ASEAN.
17. 2008Constitution approved in a military-organised referendum.
18. 2011Thein Sein government begins a period of political and economic reforms.
19. 2015NLD wins the general election.
20. 2016NLD-led government takes office.
21. 2017Military operations in Rakhine State lead to mass Rohingya displacement.
22. 8 November 2020General election; NLD wins a second term.
23. 1 February 2021Military coup removes the elected government.2021 onwardCivil disobedience, nationwide resistance and expanding armed conflict.Important historical documents to digitiseThird Anglo-Burmese War and annexation records.British Burma Gazette and colonial administrative reports.Burma Independence Act 1947.Aung San–Attlee Agreement, 27 January 1947.Panglong Agreement, 12 February 1947.Constitution of the Union of Burma, 1947.Parliamentary proceedings, 1948–62.Revolutionary Council declarations and 1962 coup records.Constitution of 1974.Documents relating to the 1988 uprising and September 1988 takeover.1990 general election results and related records.Constitution of 2008 and referendum documentation.2015 and 2020 election records.UN Fact-Finding Mission reports on Myanmar.UN Human Rights Council reports following the 2021 coup.

Archive notes

Archive and research links

National Archives of Myanmar – official archive portal.

National Archives of Myanmar – Access to Records – describes the archival collections, access restrictions and researcher requirements. Its listed holdings include colonial administration records, Japanese occupation records, parliamentary records and Cabinet minutes.

Myanmar National Archives – Highlight Archives – descriptions of the Panglong Agreement, Aung San–Attlee Agreement and other independence-era documents.

UN Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar – information on the Fact-Finding Mission and the preservation and analysis of evidence.

UN OHCHR – Human Rights Situation in Myanmar since 1 February 2022 – documented human-rights trends following the coup.

UN Human Rights Council – February 2021 Special Session – record of the Council’s response to the removal of the elected government.

Editorial note: Myanmar’s history must include the political experiences of Bamar and ethnic minority communities, including Karen, Kachin, Shan, Chin, Rakhine, Mon and Rohingya communities. The 1947 Panglong Agreement should not be treated as proof that all ethnic groups consented to every later constitutional arrangement. Distinguish verified archival documents, witness testimony, UN findings, court proceedings and claims made by parties to the conflict.