Peru

Historical overview

Peru has one of the Americas’ longest and richest histories of complex societies. Early civilisations included Caral-Supe, Chavín, Moche, Nazca, Wari and Chimú. These societies developed monumental architecture, irrigation systems, textiles, ceramics, trade networks and sophisticated agricultural technologies.

The Inca Empire expanded rapidly during the fifteenth century, with its political centre at Cusco. It incorporated a large part of the Andes through military expansion, diplomacy, administrative systems and road networks. Spanish forces under Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca ruler Atahualpa in 1532, and Spanish colonial authority expanded after the fall of Cusco in 1533. The Viceroyalty of Peru became one of the most important political and economic centres of Spain’s American empire.

Colonial Peru was shaped by forced labour, mining, taxation, religious conversion and racial hierarchy. The mita labour system was used to compel Indigenous communities to provide labour, including for silver mining at Potosí. Indigenous resistance continued throughout the colonial period. The 1780–83 rebellion led by Túpac Amaru II and Micaela Bastidas became one of the most important anti-colonial uprisings in Spanish America.

Independence emerged from a prolonged process involving Indigenous and Creole rebellions, regional movements and military campaigns. José de San Martín proclaimed Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. The first Constituent Congress began its work on 20 September 1822, and the first Constitution was adopted in 1823. Spanish royalist forces remained active until the military victories at Junín and Ayacucho in 1824. Parlamento PeruanoThe nineteenth century included political instability, caudillo rule, the expansion of guano exports and conflict with neighbouring states. The War of the Pacific (1879–83) against Chile resulted in the loss of territory and severe economic disruption. The twentieth century brought urbanisation, labour movements, military governments, land reform and growing demands for Indigenous and rural rights.

On 3 October 1968, a military government led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado seized power. Its reforms included agrarian reform, nationalisation of important industries and changes to state relations with rural communities. The 1979 Constitution was followed by the return to civilian rule in 1980.

Between 1980 and 2000, Peru experienced a severe internal armed conflict involving the Shining Path insurgency, the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement, state security forces and civilian populations. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission estimated that the most probable number of people killed or disappeared was 69,280. It concluded that the conflict disproportionately affected rural, Indigenous and Quechua-speaking communities. The figure is the Commission’s statistical estimate and should be identified as such in the archive. cverdad.org.pePresident Alberto Fujimori’s government carried out a self-coup on 5 April 1992, dissolving Congress and intervening in the judiciary. A new Constitution was approved in 1993. Fujimori’s government defeated major insurgent organisations but was also responsible for grave human-rights violations, including extrajudicial killings and forced sterilisation policies. The regime collapsed in 2000 amid corruption scandals and political crisis.

Key historical timeline

1. c. 3000 BCECaral-Supe civilisation flourishes.c. 900–200 BCEChavín culture develops.c. 100–800 CEMoche civilisation flourishes.c. 600–1000 CEWari political and cultural influence expands.
2. c. 1200Inca political formation develops around Cusco.
3. 1438–1533Inca Empire expands across the Andes.
4. 1532Atahualpa captured by Spanish forces.
5. 1542Viceroyalty of Peru established.
6. 1780–83Túpac Amaru II and Micaela Bastidas rebellion.
7. 28 July 1821San Martín proclaims independence.
8. 20 September 1822First Constituent Congress installed.
9. 1823First republican Constitution adopted.
10. 1824Battles of Junín and Ayacucho consolidate independence.
11. 1879–83War of the Pacific.
12. 1920Constitution adopted under Augusto B. Leguía.
13. 1968Military coup brings Velasco Alvarado to power.
14. 1969Agrarian reform law enacted.
15. 1979New Constitution adopted.
16. 1980Civilian government restored; internal armed conflict begins.
17. 5 April 1992Fujimori self-coup.
18. 1993New Constitution approved.
19. 1992Shining Path leader Abimael Guzmán captured.
20. 2000Fujimori leaves office amid political crisis.
21. 2001Truth and Reconciliation Commission established.
22. 2003Truth and Reconciliation Commission publishes final report.Important historical documents to digitiseCaral-Supe, Chavín, Moche, Wari and Inca archaeological records.Colonial land and community documents.Viceroyalty of Peru administrative records.Túpac Amaru II and Micaela Bastidas rebellion records.Independence proclamation (1821).Founding Act of the First Constituent Congress (1822).Constitutions of 1823, 1828, 1834, 1860, 1920, 1933, 1979 and 1993.War of the Pacific records.Agrarian Reform Law (1969).Records of the internal armed conflict (1980–2000).Truth and Reconciliation Commission final report (2003).Judicial records concerning human-rights violations.Indigenous land and language rights documentation.Archives and research linksPeru – Archivo General de la Nación Digital Repository – historical records and collections.Peruvian National Archives –

Archive notes

Historical overview – institutional history and important collections.

Peruvian Congress – Digital constitutional archive – historical constitutional texts.

Peruvian Congress – Founding Act of 20 September 1822 – original parliamentary record.

Peru Truth and Reconciliation Commission – Final Report, English conclusions – findings on the 1980–2000 conflict.

Peru Truth and Reconciliation Commission – Spanish final report – full historical conclusions and statistical estimates.

Lugar de la Memoria, la Tolerancia y la Inclusión Social – memory and education about political violence.

Human-rights focus: Colonial forced labour, Indigenous resistance, land dispossession, the War of the Pacific, political violence, insurgency, state abuses, forced sterilisation, rural displacement and the rights of Indigenous and Quechua-speaking communities.